Keywords: Devices in Evaluation in Clinical Experience, Sensors in Hardware/Control Developments, Probe Technologies in Brain-Machine Interfaces
Abstract: The main aim of this paper is to illustrate the potentials that the use of robotic and mechatronic technologies (in combination with advanced biomechanical models) can offer to help elderly people identifying and slowing down the effects of the age-related modifications of the neuro-muscolo-skeletal systems and therefore increasing their possibility of staying at home reducing the hospetalization time. In particular, a three phases approach is proposed in this paper: (i) the use of robotic and mechatronic systems to analyse the age-related modifications of the motor control strategies (in particular for falling risk) in clinics or research laboratories; (ii) the use of wearable systems to assess motor performance in a unstructured environment (e.g., the house of the people); (iii) the use of technological aids to help elderly people to live autonomously in their domestic environment. The results illustrated in this manuscript seems to confirm that this approach can provide interesting and useful tools to increase the quality of life of elderly people.

Keywords: Lower-limb in Robotic Prosthetics/Orthotics, Novel Controls in Prosthetics/Orthotics, Manipulation in Assistive Robotics
Abstract: In this paper, to support antigravity muscles during stance phase more strongly, we propose a new wearable antigravity muscles support system, which supports antigravity muscles around the knee and hip joint. In this system, a posture-based control algorithm for the device without using biological signals is implemented to the wearable antigravity muscles support device. Experimental results show the potential of this proposed system.

Keywords: Multifunction Control in Prosthetics/Orthotics, Novel Controls in Prosthetics/Orthotics, Upper-limb in Prosthetics/Orthotics
Abstract: The classification accuracies of controllers utilizing EMG input from six surface and ten intramuscular recordings are compared. In addition, the effect of including autoregressive (AR) parameters into the input sets is examined. The average accuracies from four subjects are reported. It was observed that surface recordings based solely on amplitude data did not perform well (21.1% error) but adding AR coefficients increased this accuracy substantially (10.3%). The intramuscular recordings performed comparably to the surface recordings with AR coefficients using all ten (13.2%) and a smaller set of six (12.1%) channels of intramuscular data. The subset of six channels was selected using multinomial logistic regression. It was observed that adding the AR coefficients to the intramuscular recordings also produced an improvement in classification accuracy for the six (92.8%) and ten (93.7%) channel input sets. To our knowledge this is the first work in more than three decades that explores the use of intramuscular EMG for the control of upper-limb prostheses and this work demonstrates that it is possible to achieve a decrease in classification error of nearly 40% by using intramuscular recordings.

Keywords: Upper-limb in Prosthetics/Orthotics, Upper Extremity in Therapeutic Robotics, Manipulation in Assistive Robotics
Abstract: People with neuromuscular diseases can benefit from devices that assist their motoric capabilities. Different categories can be distinguished for different patient groups, ranging from robotic manipulators to non-powered orthoses. Robotic manipulators can be used by people with virtually no muscle force, whereas non-powered orthoses require at least acceleration and deceleration effort. This paper proposes a hybrid solution, constituting a non-powered orthosis that can be electronically adjusted to varying load. An overview of prototype development will be presented, including the design of linkage, balancer, interface and appearance. A preliminary evaluation with users is also provided.

Keywords: Upper-limb in Prosthetics/Orthotics
Abstract: Due to their restricted mobility, current commercial prosthetic devices for upper limb amputees could be inadequate to satisfactorily rehabilitate patients with the severest injuries, like shoulder-disarticulated patients. The aim of this study is to develop a mechanism which can partially replicate the function of the missing shoulder joint, increasing the mobility of the current prosthesis and its overall performance. The mechanical design of the device is highly dependent on the clinical factors of the rehabilitation process: thus an approach which combines both clinical and technical aspects has been used and proposed. This paper summarizes the most significant design steps and describes the most promising solution studied.

Keywords: Multifunction Control in Prosthetics/Orthotics, Upper-limb in Prosthetics/Orthotics
Abstract: The control of multifunctional myoelectric prostheses is a substantive area of research with the potential to dramatically improve the independence of transradial amputees. We present preliminary data for the development of a new technique for obtaining multiple electromyographic (EMG) signals for controlling multifunctional myoelectric hand and wrist prostheses. A completely embedded passive conductor is proposed to transmit intramuscular EMG signals to a distant location just beneath the skin surface with a subcutaneous terminal. These signals can then be recorded with conventional surface electrodes. The surface recorded intramuscular EMG (SRI EMG) signals will closely follow the electrical potential at the muscle fiber source. They will be extremely selective, and the well-known effect of spatial filtering, which reduces the amplitude and frequency content of surface EMG signals, will be virtually eliminated. It will, therefore, be possible to access control signals from deep or small muscles that would otherwise be unavailable. Based on this technique, a new generation of multifunction myoelectric prostheses can be developed. The technique is a simple, inexpensive, and robust alternative to implanted telemetry systems and percutaneous electrodes.

Keywords: Multifunction Control in Prosthetics/Orthotics, Upper-limb in Prosthetics/Orthotics, Neural Computation in Biorobotics/Biomimetics
Abstract: This paper proposes a novel real-time EMG pattern recognition for the control of multifunction myoelectric hand from four channel EMG signals. To cope with the nonstationary signal property of the EMG, features are extracted by wavelet packet transform. For dimensionality reduction and nonlinear mapping of the features, we also propose a linear-nonlinear feature projection composed of PCA and SOFM. The dimensionality reduction by PCA simplifies the structure of the classifier, and reduces processing time for the pattern recognition. The nonlinear mapping by SOFM transforms the PCA-reduced features to a new feature space with high class separability. Finally a multilayer neural network is employed as the pattern classifier. We implement a real-time control system for a multifunction virtual hand. From experimental results, we show that all processes, including virtual hand control, are completed within 125 msec, and the proposed method is applicable to real-time myoelectric hand control without an operation time delay.

Keywords: Mechanical systems in Hardware/Control, Upper Extremity in Therapeutic Robotics
Abstract: This paper describes the design and operation of the Multi-Axis Cartesian-based Arm Rehabilitation Machine (MACARM), a new cable (wire) robot for upper limb rehabilitation. The prototype configuration is comprised of an array of 8 motors mounted at the corners of a cubic support frame that provides, via cables, 6 degree of freedom (DOF) control of a centrally located end-effector. A 6 DOF load cell mounted on the end-effector provides force measurement. Given its relatively simple architecture, the MACARM may provide an attractive alternative to serial robots for use in neurorehabilitation.

Keywords: Control in Hardware/Control Developments, Novel Techniques in Therapeutic Robotics, Upper-limb in Prosthetics/Orthotics
Abstract: A portable tele-assessment system was developed for remote evaluation of the spastic elbow joint of stroke survivors. The causality-based control architectures were introduced for designing the controllers for the tele-assessment system. Based on causality analysis of the tele-assessment tasks, control architectures were designed to guarantee system stability and to provide the clinician with transparent feeling in the presence of small time delay. The proposed method was verified experimentally on the elbow of healthy subjects. The device was made portable and low cost, which makes it potentially more accessible to patients in remote areas.

Keywords: Control in Hardware/Control Developments, Locomotion in Sensory-Motor Control & Learning
Abstract: One of the prevailing paradigms of physical rehabilitation following neurologic injury is to “assist-as-needed”; that is, the rehabilitation therapist manually assists patients in performing movements, providing only as much assistance as needed to complete the movement. Several research groups are attempting to automate this principle with robotic movement training devices. This paper derives an “assist as needed” robotic training algorithm by framing the problem as an optimization problem. We assume that motor recovery can be modeled as a process of learning a novel sensory motor transformation. The optimized robotic movement trainer is then an error-based controller with a forgetting factor. It bounds kinematic errors while systematically reducing its assistance. The same controller also works well if the dominant dynamics of recovery are akin to a strengthening process. We experimentally validate the controller with an unimpaired subject by demonstrating how the controller can help the subject to learn a novel sensory motor transformation (i.e. an internal model) with smaller kinematic errors than typical. The task studied here is walking on a treadmill in the presence of a novel dynamic environment. The assist-as-needed controller proposed here may be useful for limiting error during the learning of tasks in which large errors are dangerous or discouraging.

Keywords: Interfaces in Hardware/Control Developments, Mechanical systems in Hardware/Control, Electronics in Hardware/Control Developments
Abstract: We are proposing a new approach to rehabilitation robotics for people who have suffered neurological injuries resulting in impaired motor ability in the lower limbs. The central idea being developed in this research project is to design a teleoperated rehabilitation device that allows an incomplete spinal cord injured (SCI) patient to use their upper limbs, i.e. the intact portion of their neurological system, to direct the mechanical assistance of their lower limbs. This paper presents the design of a single axis dual interface apparatus and its connection to a computationally mediated virtual environment. A preliminary experiment was conducted wherein healthy subjects manipulate a virtual pendulum with their hand, feet, or both to track a pseudo-random signal. Results show that the combined efforts of the hand and feet demonstrate improved tracking performance. We now have an apparatus and associated task for which control sharing between the hand and feet yields benefit for healthy subjects. If further experiments with healthy subjects can demonstrate the benefit of a hand-assisted training phase for ultimate performance with feet alone, then we shall test the hypothesis that this hand-assisted phase can accelerate rehabilitation for neurologically injured patients.

Keywords: Control in Hardware/Control Developments, Neuro-Rehabilitation in Therapeutic Robotics, Closed-Loop Control in Brain-Machine Interfaces
Abstract: This paper presents new human-centered robotic approaches applied to the rehabilitation of gait and upper-extremity functions in patients with movement disorders. So-called “patient-cooperative” strategies can take into account the patient’s intention and efforts rather than imposing any predefined movement. It is hypothesized that such human-centered robotic approaches can improve the therapeutic outcome compared to classical rehabilitation strategies.

Keywords: Control in Hardware/Control Developments, Automated Therapy in Therapeutic Robotics
Abstract: The goal of our research is to develop a novel control framework to assist stroke patients during rehabilitation therapy. This framework is expected to provide an optimal time-varying assistive force to stroke patients in varying physical and environmental conditions. An artificial neural network (ANN)-based PI-gain scheduling direct force controller is designed to provide optimal force assistance. The human arm model is integrated within the control framework where the ANN uses estimated human arm parameters to select the appropriate PI gains. An online technique to estimate human arm parameters as well as off-line analyses of the force controller are presented in this paper to demonstrate the feasibility and efficacy of the proposed method.

Keywords: Upper Extremity in Therapeutic Robotics, Training Programs in Therapeutic Robotics
Abstract: Finger extension is an important hand function and is crucial for object exploration and manipulation. Unfortunately, the impairment of this motor function is common among stroke survivors. A training environment incorporating Augmented Reality (AR) in conjunction with assistive devices has been developed for the rehabilitation of finger extension. The environment consists of three components: the stroke survivor user element consisting of AR equipment/software and body-powered orthosis; the therapist element comprised of monitoring/control interface with visual, audio and force feedback; and the networking module which interconnects these two. In this paper we present the structure of this environment along with the results from a pilot case study with a stroke survivor.

Keywords: Upper Extremity in Therapeutic Robotics, Control in Hardware/Control Developments
Abstract: The development of a prototype robotic system to facilitate upper extremity (UE) rehabilitation in individuals who sustain neurological impairments such as cervical level spinal cord injuries (SCI), acquired brain injuries (ABIs) or stroke (CVA) is described. A control system based on Electromyography (EMG) signals has been implemented to provide the appropriate amount of assistance or resistance necessary to progress a patient’s movement recovery. Use of EMG signals has potential advantages over systems based only on torque and position sensors. The prototype system includes programmable mechanical impedance, adjustable thresholds and control gains. This robotic rehabilitation device would be used to provide repeated motor practice in an effort to promote neurological recovery and improve functional use of the UE.

Keywords: Novel Techniques in Therapeutic Robotics, Safety in Assistive Robotics
Abstract: This paper presents a feasibility study of using socially-aware autonomous robots to assist hospitals in reducing the effects of nursing shortages. A hands-off assistive robot is described that provides motivation and support for cardiac patients who must perform regular but painful breathing exercises. Initial validation of the system has garnered positive responses from test subjects and shows that robots have a potential to aid nursing staff in some tasks requiring patient interaction.

Keywords: Neuro-Rehabilitation in Therapeutic Robotics, Modeling in Biorobotics/Biomimetics
Abstract: This paper is focused on the design of interaction control of robotic machines for rehabilitation motor therapy of the upper limb. The control approach tries to address requirements deriving from the application field and adopts a bio-inspired approach for regulating robot behavior in the interaction with the patient. The coactivation-based compliance control law in the joint space, proposed by Zollo et al., is resumed and a new control law for regulating robot compliance in the free space is proposed, that is borrowed from studies on the biological mechanisms of regulating of the elastic properties of a healthy human arm. Moreover, a direct force control loop is added, in order to tune the level of force in the interaction with the patient. The control law is tested on a simulation tool purposively developed, which models the dynamics of the MIT-MANUS robot interacting with a human subject. The capability of the control system of counterbalancing incorrect movements depending on the level of pathology is then validated.

Keywords: Novel Techniques in Therapeutic Robotics, Measures in Evaluation in Clinical Experience, Training Evaluation in Clinical Experience
Abstract: Neurological disorders, such as spinal cord injury, stroke, and traumatic brain injury, affect the motor performance of affected individuals. The most important result is the loss of function, e.g. gait function. A reduction of normal features and an increase in pathological features lead to this loss. Muscle weakness and increased involuntary muscle tone (spasticity) are most commonly affected.

Robotic rehabilitation devices are available for re-training impaired functions. For example, the Lokomat supports patients during body-weight supported treadmill training. The robotic devices are equipped with sensors (e.g. position and force) and actuators needed for their control. Beyond pure training, advanced tools can use these sensors and actuators to measure physiological and other properties of the patient using the device.

We report here the design, implementation, and first tests of tools that allow (i) measurement of spasticity and (ii) measurement of voluntary muscle force with the Lokomat. The spasticity tool measures mechanical stiffness during controlled passive movements of the legs. The voluntary force tool measures maximum isometric torque in the hip and knee joint. Mechanical stiffness is higher in patients with higher spasticity. The voluntary force tool can be used in patients with incomplete spinal cord injury.

We conclude that the use of robotic devices for assessment of patients during their training will be an efficient and important addition to robotic-supported therapy in the future.

Keywords: Upper Extremity in Therapeutic Robotics, Neuro-Rehabilitation in Therapeutic Robotics, Automated Therapy in Therapeutic Robotics
Abstract: This paper presents the design and implementation of UniTherapy, a telerehabilitation platform which builds on other efforts at web-based therapy [1] and targets software support for Computer-Assisted Motivating Rehabilitation (CAMR) [2] protocols that are intended especially for individuals with stroke-induced disability. It utilizes mass-marketed force-reflecting joysticks and other input devices to provide interactive upper limb assessment and therapy, and includes four modes of robot assistance. It also includes a rich menu of performance assessment capabilities, and support for telerehabilitation links, for protocol design, and for data analysis. Preliminary results of its use as a research tool for several projects are presented and discussed.

Keywords: Neuro-Rehabilitation in Therapeutic Robotics, Novel Techniques in Therapeutic Robotics, Plasticity in Sensory-Motor Control & Learning
Abstract: Over four million Americans are affected by stroke. Current theories of stroke rehabilitation point towards paradigms of intense, concentrated use of the afflicted limb as a means for motor program reorganization and partial function restoration. A home system for stroke rehabilitation to train recovery of hand function has been designed and deployed in a research study. The system measures finger and wrist flexion and extension motions on both hands. Patients use joint motion to control the cursor on a screen in a concentrated tracking task for several hours each day over the course of 10 days. A tele component was added so that a therapist can check in with the patient and monitor progress. Fifteen patients have used the system in their homes. The equipment has been reliable and patients have generally responded that the system is easy to use.

Keywords: Novel Techniques in Therapeutic Robotics, Smart Home in Assistive Robotics, Interfaces in Hardware/Control Developments
Abstract: This paper addresses how UniTherapy, a telerehabilitation platform developed primarily for computer-assisted motivating rehabilitation applications, is being turned into an accessible service. This process has involved transformation to a service-oriented universal access infrastructure that also supports intelligent context-aware user interface generation that is dependent on current and emerging standards such as the V2 standard for Universal Remote Consoles. It also has involved support for a steadily increasing, diverse menu of approaches for performance assessment, and of interfaces for promoting universal access. Progress and key issues are discussed.

Keywords: Training Programs in Therapeutic Robotics, Novel Techniques in Therapeutic Robotics, Locomotion & Posture in Therapeutic Robotics
Abstract: LOPES aims for an active role of the patient by selective and partial support of gait functions during robotic treadmill training sessions. Virtual Model Control (VMC) was applied to the robot as an intuitive method for translating current treadmill gait rehabilitation therapy programs into robotic rehabilitation therapy. Virtual models are proposed for the selective control of gait functions during treadmill training. From this collection of models several, representing the extremes of the entire set of virtual models, were implemented. The results show that VMC is a promising method for the control of a gait rehabilitation robot.

Keywords: Neuro-Rehabilitation in Therapeutic Robotics, Upper Extremity in Therapeutic Robotics, Control in Hardware/Control Developments
Abstract: Haptic and visual displays are combined to realize cooperative, force-feedback tasks over the internet. The operators ”exert” forces on a virtual object which in turn generates a set of reaction forces to be displayed on the haptic devices. A novel cooperative control architecture based on wave variables is implemented to realize stable operation in the presence of time delays. The control scheme is validated experimentally for a manipulation task over the internet using a pair of InMotion2 robots. Preliminary results are also presented for 3D tasks rendered on a head-mounted display equipped with a head tracker for changing viewing angles.

Keywords: Automated Therapy in Therapeutic Robotics, Control in Hardware/Control Developments
Abstract: The principal goal of this work is the development, testing and experimentation of a device for the hand rehabilitation. The system we designed is intended for people who have partially lost the ability to control correctly the hand musculature, for example after a stroke or a spinal cord injure. Based on EMG signals the system can "understand" the subject volition to move the hand and thanks to its actuators can help the fingers movement in order to perform the task. In this paper we describe the device and discuss the first results conducted on a healthy volunteer.

Keywords: Lower-limb in Robotic Prosthetics/Orthotics, Multifunction Control in Prosthetics/Orthotics
Abstract: Although below-knee prostheses have been commercially available for some time, today’s devices are completely passive, and consequently, their mechanical properties remain fixed with walking speed and terrain. To improve the current performance of below-knee prostheses, we study the feasibility of using the amputee’s residual limb EMG signals to control the ankle position of an active ankle-foot prosthesis. We propose two control schemes to predict the amputee’s intended ankle position: a neural network approach and a muscle model approach. We test these approaches using EMG data measured from an amputee for several target ankle movement patterns. We find that both controllers demonstrate the ability to predict desired ankle movement patterns qualitatively. In the current implementation, the biomimetic EMG-controller demonstrates a smoother and more natural movement pattern than that demonstrated by the neural network approach, suggesting that a biologically-motivated, model-based approach may offer certain advantages in the control of active ankle prostheses.

Keywords: Lower-limb in Robotic Prosthetics/Orthotics, Modeling in Biorobotics/Biomimetics
Abstract: We have developed a second order biomechanical model to estimate the vertical mechanical impedance of able-bodied walkers. Our ultimate purpose is to design prostheses for lower-limb amputees that provide the necessary impedance to match the vertical mechanical impedance of the able-bodied population. The objective is to increase walking comfort and walking speed for lower-limb amputees. The impedance values can also be used as a reference for shock absorption when designing walking machines.

Keywords: Upper-limb in Prosthetics/Orthotics, Multifunction Control in Prosthetics/Orthotics, Mechanical systems in Hardware/Control
Abstract: The most favorable electrical prosthetic hands to our patients both in size and in appearance are those that fit to their age and body shape. Particularly, with such patients who have real hand, it is important to conform the size and appearance of electrical prosthetic hands to their healthy hands. And then, it is also important to gather the information about individual hands and to apply it for making the electrical prosthetic hands at their requests.

Keywords: Novel Actuators in Prosthetics/Orthotics, Mechanical systems in Hardware/Control, Animal-Like Robots in Biorobotics/Biomimetics
Abstract: The compliance of Series Elastic Actuators makes them robust to environmental perturbations, and their ability to use impedance control may improve their performance in open-loop environments such as conventional prosthetic control. Series Elastic Actuators have historically required a backdrivable transmission to ensure adequate bandwidth. The authors have created a non-backdrivable Series Elastic Actuator through the inclusion of a Harmonic Drive transmission, which contains no backlash; the dominant feature in limiting frequency resolution. The actuator has an acceptable speed and stall torque and an adequate frequency range, and will be used in the future to implement impedance control of prosthetics.

Keywords: Lower-limb in Robotic Prosthetics/Orthotics, Mechanical systems in Hardware/Control, Novel Actuators in Prosthetics/Orthotics
Abstract: The Externally powered orthosis is one of the necessary devices for rehabilitation of paraplegia patients and hemiplegia patients and spinal-cord-injury victims. However, the main problems of speed, noise, and weight and so on make the morale of the training lower. Then, we thought that there were problems in the actuator. To overcome these problems, we have developed the orthosis externally powered by bi-articular muscle mechanism with a bilateral-servo actuator. Our study suggests such a system as the physically disabled can train with the externally powered orthosis and ambulation device in smooth action.

Keywords: Novel Actuators in Prosthetics/Orthotics, Lower-limb in Robotic Prosthetics/Orthotics, Interfaces in Hardware/Control Developments
Abstract: Two therapies for pediatric cerebral palsy patients with spastic diplegia of the legs are physical therapy to stretch the calf muscles and serial casting in combination with Botox injection. Furthermore, patients often wear ankle orthotics to assist in ambulation and therapy. With the advent of new materials and controls technology, a new wearable active orthotic boot design is proposed. Design considerations characterizing the needs of this pediatric device are summarized. System components including the actuators, sensors and controllers are presented and evaluated. A proposed boot design that is currently under construction is presented and implementation issues are discussed. The development of a novel wearable rehabilitative boot for pediatric patients with spastic diplegia is plausible and may lead to improved rehabilitative therapy.

Keywords: Kinetics in Sensory-Motor Control & Learning, Kinematics in Sensory-Motor Control & Learning, Plasticity in Sensory-Motor Control & Learning
Abstract: Internal force is defined as a set of contact forces which does not perturb object equilibrium. The internal forces cancel each other and therefore do not contribute to the resultant (manipulation) force acting upon the object. Mathematically, the internal and manipulation forces are independent. Hence they can be controlled independently and corresponding controllers have been implemented in robotic manipulators. The purposes of this study are to examine whether in humans internal force is coupled with the manipulation force and what kind of grasping strategy the performers utilize. The subjects (n=6) were instructed to make cyclic arm movements with a customized manipulandum and the orientation and the movement direction of the manipulandum were varied. Two major grasping patterns were demonstrated: symmetric grasping synergy when the manipulation force is parallel to finger-object interface; and reciprocal changes of forces when the manipulation force is orthogonal to digit-object interface. In contrast to robotic gripper where controls of internal force and manipulation force are decoupled, in humans the internal and manipulation forces are coupled.

Keywords: Kinematics in Sensory-Motor Control & Learning, Posture Control in Sensory-Motor Control & Learning, Plasticity in Sensory-Motor Control & Learning
Abstract: A new experimental platform permits us to study a novel variety of issues of human motor control, particularly full 3-D movements involving the major seven degrees-of-freedom (DOF) of the human arm. We incorporate a seven DOF robot exoskeleton, and can minimize weight and inertia through gravity, Coriolis, and inertia compensation, such that subjects' arm movements are largely unaffected by the manipulandum. Torque perturbations can be individually applied to any or all seven joints of the human arm, thus creating novel dynamic environments, or force fields, for subjects to respond and adapt to. Our first study investigates a joint space force field where the shoulder velocity drives a disturbing force in the elbow joint. Results demonstrate that subjects learn to compensate for the force field within about 100 trials, and from the strong presence of aftereffects when removing the field in some randomized catch trials, that an inverse dynamics, or internal model, of the force field is formed by the nervous system. Interestingly, while post-learning hand trajectories return to baseline, joint space trajectories remained changed in response to the field, indicating that besides learning a model of the force field, the nervous system also chose to exploit the null space to minimize the effects of the force field on the realization of the endpoint trajectory plan. Further applications for our apparatus include studies in motor system redundancy resolution and inverse kinematics, as well as rehabilitation.

Keywords: Kinetics in Sensory-Motor Control & Learning, Locomotion in Sensory-Motor Control & Learning, Posture Control in Sensory-Motor Control & Learning
Abstract: In diabetic foot, sensation loss predisposes to skin ulceration which may result in amputation, the most feared complication. Therefore, understanding and detection of factors responsible for plantar ulceration and their measurement reproducibly is necessary to save the foot at risk As peak foot pressure were not sufficiently sensitive, Power Ratio(PR), a new diagnostic parameter, by analysis of foot pressure distribution in standing and walking images of foot has been developed. PR is related to different levels of sensation loss in the diabetic foot. Algorithm is developed (in MATLAB) to automatically separate (crop) bitmap files of different foot sizes. Algorithm is also developed (in Visual C ++) to calculate PR of cropped images and display simultaneously PR of all foot sole areas. This display of PR simultaneously in all foot areas helps clinician to effectively discriminate between normal, early and advanced stages of diabetic neuropathic subjects and also in detecting foot sole areas at risk.

Keywords: Training Evaluation in Clinical Experience, Measures in Evaluation in Clinical Experience, Devices in Evaluation in Clinical Experience
Abstract: Robotic laparoscopic surgery has been shown to decrease task completion time, reduce errors, and decrease training time when compared to manual laparoscopic surgery. However, current literature has not addressed physiological effects, in particular muscle responses, to training with a robotic surgical system. We seek to determine the frequency response of electromyographic (EMG) signals of specific arm and hand muscles with training using the da Vinci Surgical System (dVSS). Eight right-handed medical students were trained in three tasks with dVSS over four weeks. These subjects, along with eight controls, were tested before and after training. EMG signals were collected from four arm and hand muscles during the testing sessions and the median EMG frequency and bandwidth were computed. Median frequency decreased, while frequency bandwidth increased, post-training for two of the three tasks. The results suggested that training reduces muscle fatigue as a result of faster and more deliberate movements. These changes occurred predominantly in muscles that were the dominant muscles for each task. An evaluation of the physiological demands of robotic laparoscopic surgery using electromyography can provide us with a meaningful quantitative way to examine performance and skill acquisition.

Keywords: Devices in Evaluation in Clinical Experience, Upper Extremity in Therapeutic Robotics, Kinetics in Sensory-Motor Control & Learning
Abstract: Assistive technologies (AT) have the potential to augment individual’s life and to promote functional independence. However, in many cases, optimum use of an assistive technology device is restricted due to the difficulties in interacting with the user. Owing to inherent differences in the level of individuals’ impairment, selection of a suitable interface for an assistive technology device is usually a difficult choice. Objective quantification of the individual’s impairment is therefore a very important step in matching a suitable interface for use with assistive technology equipments. Similar need for such measures can be seen in rehabilitation where appropriate objective measures can inform the effectiveness of a therapy regime or help to compare different therapies and their usefulness. This paper presents the peg-in-hole haptic assessment designed for quantifying upper limb skills.

Keywords: Control in Hardware/Control Developments, Mobility and Navigation in Assistive Robotics
Abstract: This paper presents a multi-stage shared control method (MSSC) which can be used to control the movement of a robotic mobility assistant designed to facilitate safe mobilization for people with unstable gait. The multi-stage control module consists of user intent, obstacle avoidance and fuzzy logic components. The user intent represents the person’s commands. The obstacle avoidance component reads data representing any obstacles in the vicinity of the assistant and uses the Vector Field Histogram (VFH) algorithm to select a suitable path to avoid any obstacles in the path of travel. The fuzzy logic component is responsible for merging the user intent and obstacle avoidance information such that the user’s request is satisfied to the highest extent possible. When an unsafe situation presents itself the user’s request(s) will be partially or wholly overridden so the assistant can return to a safe state.

The system has been designed to be dynamically configurable so as to suit different users in terms of gait stability and strength, preferred speed of travel and level of control over the system. It has been tested both in a simulated environment and real-world operating conditions and has been shown to effectively avoid obstacles with minimal disruption to the user and their intent.

Keywords: Mechanical systems in Hardware/Control, Upper Extremity in Therapeutic Robotics, Control in Hardware/Control Developments
Abstract: In the last three years, a wire-based robot called the NeReBot (NEuroREhabilitation roBOT) was developed at the Robotics Laboratory of the Department of Innovation in Mechanics and Management, University of Padua, Italy. NeReBot is a 3 degrees-of-freedom (d.o.f.) wire-based robot, designed for the treatment of patients with stroke-related paralyzed or paretic upper limb during the acute phase. Although first clinical tests showed encouraging results in terms of motor recovery and functional outcome, the robot presented some limitations. Hence a new wire-based robot, called the MariBot (MARIsa roBOT), was designed. The wire-drive philosophy, which makes the robot intrinsically safe, was maintained. Nevertheless, by changing the mechanical structure and adding two more d.o.f. the working space was enlarged significantly. Moreover, thanks to the improved mechanical design, MariBot results much lighter and less cumbersome than NeReBot. Finally, electronic hardware and control software were changed in order to improve man-machine interaction. In this paper, starting from the NeReBot experience, the design of MariBot is presented.

Keywords: Interfaces in Hardware/Control Developments, Plasticity in Sensory-Motor Control & Learning, Training Programs in Therapeutic Robotics
Abstract: This paper describes targeted reaching experiments conducted using a new augmented reality system. Combining a large-workspace immersive virtual environment with physical force feedback, the system distorted subjects' movements using a viscous curl force field Following previous experiments using a different robot, half the subjects were constrained to horizontal, planar movements. The remaining subjects performed unconstrained movements throughout the 3D workspace. Examining after-effects as an indication of learning, we found that constrained subjects learned the force field. However, it was difficult to detect whether the unconstrained subjects learned forces of identical magnitude. Our results found that force fields strengths eliciting constrained 2D adaptation have difficulty exhibiting after-effects for unconstrained 3D movements. The increased motor variability for 3D reaching movements requires consideration for future experimental design.

Keywords: Mechanical systems in Hardware/Control, Devices in Evaluation in Clinical Experience, Neuro-Rehabilitation in Therapeutic Robotics
Abstract: The experimental investigation of the visco-elastic properties of the human arm has important implications in neuroscience, robotics and neuro-rehabilitation of the upper limb. In neuroscience it allows studying the mechanisms used by the central nervous system in implementing low-level strategies for motion control; in robotics it can provide useful information for the formulation of control strategies for human-robot interaction, by taking inspiration from the biological behavior; in neuro-rehabilitation it may be a useful tool for quantitatively assessing the recovery of motor functions during motor therapy. Few mechatronic instruments exist allowing the direct measurement of visco-elastic properties of the human arm. None of them are intended to be portable and stand-alone devices, and also to be properly interfaced with existing robots as end effectors. This paper is concerned with the design of a novel mechatronic handle intended to be a portable device for the measurement of human arm visco-elastic properties. The design specifications take into account also the possibility of adapting the device to existing robots for rehabilitation motor therapy. In particular, the investigation of existing literature, both in robotics and in neuroscience, together with numerical simulations, led to the selection of the most useful technical specifications for such devices. A preliminary design of the handle is also presented and discussed.

Keywords: Control in Hardware/Control Developments, Upper Extremity in Therapeutic Robotics, Training Programs in Therapeutic Robotics
Abstract: Rehabilitation exercises which maintain a patient’s interest and quantitative evaluation of rehabilitation are required. To solve these problems, we have developed a haptic device system. This system consists of a haptic device, a display, a computer, and software for a training program. When users move the grip, the haptic device provides a virtual force, either assisting the movement of their arm or working against it. To investigate the functional effect of this system using a training program, we measured the grip position, velocity, force on the grip, and electromyographic (EMG) activites during a reaching task for five healthy subjects. Spatio-temporal patterns of both the velocity and grip force, the accuracy of the grip trajectories, and the EMG patterns were similar in all subjects. These results suggested that the EMG activities were improved by applying the virtual force to the grip. These results can be used for the development of rehabilitation training programs and evaluation methods.

Keywords: Sensors in Hardware/Control Developments, Modeling in Biorobotics/Biomimetics, Lower-limb in Robotic Prosthetics/Orthotics
Abstract: A portable gait measurement system for foot dynamic analysis is proposed. Portable cheap sensors are suitable in active control rehabilitation equipments such as prostheses and orthoses. A system of one gyroscope and two accelerometers was used to measure the foot movement in the sagital plane. Both ground inclination during stance and foot angle relative to ground during swing are estimated. This enables fast detection of changing environments such as hills and stairs.

Keywords: Control in Hardware/Control Developments, Electronics in Hardware/Control Developments, Interfaces in Hardware/Control Developments
Abstract: In this paper, we propose an architecture of walking assistant robot for the elderly which is usable at outdoor environment. It equips PXA255 embedded board, motors, laser range finder, CCD camera and GPS receiver. User operates it using haptic handle bar. It is useful to the elderly for more comfortable walking and path guidance.

Keywords: Safety in Assistive Robotics, Sensors in Hardware/Control Developments, Mechanical systems in Hardware/Control
Abstract: Two components for reducing the risks associated with rehabilitation robots are proposed. First, a reflex mechanism, which is similar to the biological reflex, is proposed. The experimental results of a prototype prove its effectiveness for reducing impact force. A new reflex mechanism structure is also proposed for improving its reliability. A reflex system composed only of electrical circuits is also discussed. Second, a fail-safe force sensor is proposed, which realizes a safe force / torque feedback control for rehabilitation robots. It can be realized by various structures. Its application to autonomous wheelchairs is discussed for improving their safety and usability.

Keywords: Safety in Assistive Robotics, Manipulation in Assistive Robotics, Smart Home in Assistive Robotics
Abstract: In service robotics safe prevention of unsanctioned collisions with humans or other objects in the workspace is significantly important. That can be done by a real time distance observation. But immediate in the work space this task is technical very difficult to implement at the moment. The proposed solution is to use a virtual world which maps the real spatial situation in extreme simplified form, but in the same time reflects the main spatial correlations. In contrast to common VR, which task is to reflect the real world as exactly as possible, we propose a Mapped Virtual Reality (MVR). The obstacles from the real world are mapped into this virtual reality as simple shapes, covering the real objects. The robot configuration is transferred from the real robot and is permanently updated. So the virtual world reflects the real macro-situation, and the distance can be calculated now without difficulty instead of to be measured. The task of external sensors (e.g. cameras) can be reduced to the detection of new objects, which have to be mapped into the MVR, instead of observing all obstacles in the workspace and measuring distances. Such task distribution increases the safety of manipulation by reduction of technical complexity.

Keywords: Mobility and Navigation in Assistive Robotics, Automated Therapy in Therapeutic Robotics
Abstract: This paper defines the research area of socially assistive robotics, focused on assisting people through social interaction. While much attention has been paid to robots that provide assistance to people through physical contact (which we call contact assistive robotics), and to robots that entertain through social interaction (social interactive robotics), so far there is no clear definition of socially assistive robotics. We summarize active social assistive research projects and classify them by target populations, application domains, and interaction methods. While distinguishing these from socially interactive robotics endeavors, we discuss challenges and opportunities that are specific to the growing field of socially assistive robotics.

Keywords: Manipulation in Assistive Robotics, Kinematics in Sensory-Motor Control & Learning
Abstract: This paper focuses on kinematic analysis and evaluation of wheelchair mounted robotic arms (WMRA). It addresses the kinematics of the WMRA with respect to its ability to reach common positions while performing activities of daily living (ADL). A procedure is developed for the kinematic analysis and evaluation of a WMRA. In an effort to evaluate two commercial WMRAs, the procedure for kinematic analysis is applied to each manipulator. Design recommendations and insights with regard to each device are obtained and used to design a new WMRA to overcome the limitations of these devices. This method will benefit the researchers by providing a standardized procedure for kinematic analysis of WMRAs that is capable of evaluating independent designs.

Keywords: Manipulation in Assistive Robotics
Abstract: User and usability studies, as well as technical analysis, revealed that some aspects of the gripper (endeffector) of the Assistive Robotic Manipulator (ARM) need improvement. This paper proposes, discusses and presents the results of three redesigns of the gripper.

Keywords: Mobility and Navigation in Assistive Robotics, Control in Hardware/Control Developments
Abstract: The goal of this research is to develop an intelligent walker which is the passive-type walker referred to as RT Walker. In this paper, especially, we propose a motion control algorithm referred to as Adaptive Caster Action to utilize RT Walker with good maneuverability in an environment such as a home, an office, a hospital, etc. The proposed control algorithm is experimentally applied to RT Walker, and the validity of the proposed control algorithm is illustrated by the experimental results.

Keywords: Manipulation in Assistive Robotics, Mechanical systems in Hardware/Control, Training Evaluation in Clinical Experience
Abstract: This paper presents the development of a robot arm assisting People With Disabilities(PWD) at working place. According to Task-Oriented Design(TOD) procedure, robot arm is systematically designed and developed. The robot arm is designed and manufactured to carry out 2 tasks, ‘circuit test of PCB’ and ‘soldering inspection and repairing of PCB with sorder’. It is tested and evaluated at the company for handcapped workers.

Keywords: Sensors in Hardware/Control Developments, Electronics in Hardware/Control Developments, Devices in Evaluation in Clinical Experience
Abstract: Electrically conductive elastomer composites (CEs) show piezoresistive properties when a deformation is applied. In several applications, CEs can be integrated onto fabric or other flexible substrate and can be employed as strain sensors. Moreover, integrated CE sensors may be used in biomechanical analysis to realize wearable kinesthetic interfaces able to detect posture and movement of the human body. In the following a kinesthetic upper limb garment realized by CEs which allows to reconstruct shoulder, elbow and wrist movements and a kinesthetic glove able to detect posture an gesture of the hand are presented.

Keywords: Smart Home in Assistive Robotics, Devices in Evaluation in Clinical Experience
Abstract: A novel advanced robotic residence, Intelligent Sweet Home (ISH), developed at KAIST, Korea for testing advanced concepts for independent living of the elderly and the physically handicapped. The work focuses on human-friendly technical solutions for motion/mobility assistance, health monitoring, and advanced human-machine interfaces that provide easy control of both assistive devices and home-installed appliances. To improve the inhabitant’s comfort, an intelligent bed, intelligent wheelchair and mechatronic transfer robot were developed. And, various interfaces based on hand gestures and voice, and health monitoring system were studied. This paper emphasizes on the realization scheme of Intelligent Sweet Home and user evaluation by a physically handicapped person.

Keywords: Locomotion & Posture in Therapeutic Robotics, Neuro-Rehabilitation in Therapeutic Robotics, Novel Techniques in Therapeutic Robotics
Abstract: Common actuators have important drawbacks for use in an exoskeleton type of rehabilitation (training) robot. Either the actuators are heavy, complex or poor torque sources. A new actuation system is proposed and tested that combines a lightweight joint and a simple structure with adequate torque source quality. It consists of a servomotor, a flexible Bowden cable transmission, and a force feedback loop based on a series elastic element. Measurements show that performance is sufficient for use in a gait rehabilitation robot.

Keywords: Upper Extremity in Therapeutic Robotics, Control in Hardware/Control Developments, Manipulation in Assistive Robotics
Abstract: Abstract—This paper describes the development of a pneumatic robot for functional movement training of the arm and hand after stroke. The device is based on the Wilmington Robotic Exoskeleton (WREX), a passive, mobile arm support developed for children with arm weakness caused by a debilitative condition. Previously, we scaled WREX for use by adults, instrumented it with potentiometers, and incorporated a simple grip strength sensor. The resulting passive device (Training WREX or “T-WREX”) allows individuals with severe motor impairment to practice functional movements (reaching, eating, and washing) in a simple virtual reality environment called Java Therapy 2.0. However, the device is limited since it can only apply a fixed pattern of assistive forces to the arm. In addition, its gravity balance function does not restore full range of motion. Therefore, we are also developing a robotic version of WREX named Pneu-WREX, which can apply a wide range of forces to the arm during naturalistic movements. Pneu-WREX uses pneumatic actuators, non-linear force control, and passive counter-balancing to allow application of a wide range of forces during naturalistic upper extremity movements. Besides a detailed description of the mechanical design and kinematics of Pneu-WREX, we present results from a survey of 29 therapists on the use of such a robotic device.

Keywords: Novel Techniques in Therapeutic Robotics, Plasticity in Sensory-Motor Control & Learning, Kinematics in Sensory-Motor Control & Learning
Abstract: We developed a real-time controller for a 2 degree-of-freedom robotic system using xPC Target. This system was used to investigate how different methods of performance error feedback can lead to faster and more complete motor learning in individuals asked to compensate for a novel visuo-motor transformation (a 30 degree rotation). Four groups of normal human subjects were asked to reach with their unseen arm to visual targets surrounding a central starting location. A cursor tracking hand motion was provided during each reach. For one group of subjects, deviations from the “ideal” compensatory hand movement (i.e. trajectory errors) were amplified with a gain of 2 whereas another group was provided visual feedback with a gain of 3.1. Yet another group was provided cursor feedback wherein the cursor was rotated by an additional (constant) offset angle. We compared the rates at which the hand paths converged to the steady-state trajectories. Our results demonstrate that error-augmentation can improve the rate and extent of motor learning of visuomotor rotations in healthy subjects. We also tested this method on straightening the movements of stroke subjects, and our early results suggest that error amplification can facilitate neurorehabilitation strategies in brain injuries such as stroke.

Keywords: Neuro-Rehabilitation in Therapeutic Robotics, Training Programs in Therapeutic Robotics, Upper Extremity in Therapeutic Robotics
Abstract: Results from a randomized, controlled clinical trial of the MIME robotic device for shoulder and elbow neuro-rehabilitation in subacute stroke patients are presented. MIME incorporates a PUMA 560 robot that applies forces to the paretic limb during unilateral and bilateral 3-dimensional movements. The training dose was 15 1-hour sessions within a 4-week period. Analysis of clinical data found the MIME training at least as effective as an equivalent dose of hands-on therapy by a therapist. The MIME training provided added-value by increasing the rate of recovery on some motor impairment scales. Combined unilateral and bilateral training yielded similar functional outcomes compared to equivalent doses of unilateral-only robot training, but with reduced hypertonia and abnormal synergies. Robot group gains exceeded that expected from spontaneous recovery.

Keywords: Upper Extremity in Therapeutic Robotics, Measures in Evaluation in Clinical Experience, Neuro-Rehabilitation in Therapeutic Robotics
Abstract: This work presents two robot devices for use in the rehabilitation of upper limb movements and reports the quantitative parameters obtained to characterize the rate of improvement thus allowing a precise monitoring of the patient’s recovery. Two groups of chronic post-stroke patients were enrolled in a 3-week rehabilitation program including standard physical therapy plus treatment by means of robot devices respectively for wrist and elbow-shoulder movements. Both groups were evaluated by means of standard clinical assessment scales and a new robot measured evaluation metrics. After treatment, both groups improved their motor deficit and disability. The new evaluation metrics proposed should allow the therapist to implement targeted rehabilitative strategies and, if necessary, prompt adjustment of the treatment.

Keywords: Upper Extremity in Therapeutic Robotics, Neuro-Rehabilitation in Therapeutic Robotics
Abstract: The presence of discoordination following stroke has been described qualitatively in the clinic and quantitatively in static conditions. Under dynamic conditions, aspects of arm movements have been explored in two conditions: supported and unsupported against gravity. While these methods have provided insight into movement patterns following stroke, the picture is incomplete and requires a device that can measure joint torques during dynamic arm motions and provide levels of partial support to the arm during movement. Here, we describe the Arm Coordination Training 3-D (ACT ^3D) robotic system and how its unique characteristics can provide additional insight into the dynamic expression of these synergies. Implications and clinical applications are briefly discussed.